By einav grushka

The status of Jews in 18th and 19th century Morocco is a subject of great historical complexity, not least because of the unique socio-legal expectations and restrictions they faced under the rule of various leaders of the Alawi dynasty. 

In the late eighteenth century, the Jewish community of Morocco lived under often-challenging conditions. While the Jews of Morocco held the ‘protected’ dhimmi status, they were nonetheless regarded and treated as a subordinate religious minority. This manifested itself in the numerous social restrictions imposed upon them: Jews were required to wear distinctive black clothing, and to remove shoes when passing mosques. Perhaps a minor detail, but nonetheless telling, by law, they were not permitted to ride horses, only donkeys. Despite this law rarely coming into practice, it illustrates clear conceptual preconceptions and biases against the Jewish population of Morocco. And, despite the fact that many Jewish communities maintained strong internal autonomy in both religious and communal affairs, within their own courts, leadership structures and economic spheres, persecution and violence remained a significant part of their stories. It is from within this very hardship, from the shaky, unstable ground upon which the Jews of Morocco stood, that stories and legends of both tragic, and heroic natures emerged and were perpetuated in Jewish consciousness, etched into the very essence of what it means to be Jewish in a world of serial oppression. 

Of the several hardships that Jews faced in the kingdom, some of the most illustrious were the waves of forced conversions that took place at the break of the century. The forced conversions of the Meknes Jewish community under Sultan Moulay Yazid’s reign in 1790 to 1792, of the Jewish quarter of Fez in 1807 under Sultan Moulay Silmane, and of Jews from the coastal cities of Tangier and Tetouan in the 1830s marked a major systemic and institutional attack on Jewish identity in the region. Effectuated through the means of economic coercion (the jizya tax), physical violence, accusations of apostasy, and public humiliation, these series of forced conversions did not  only breed images of degradation and weakness amongst the Jewish communities; more importantly, they also birthed idols of resistance, courage, and spirit. 

One such idol was Sol Hachuel, otherwise known as Suleika, a young Jewish woman from Tangier who would become the face and symbol of multi-dimensional resistance and martyrdom, as well as a grand and far-reaching symbol challenging religious persecution in North Africa. Born in Tangier to a Jewish merchant family, Sol was arrested aged only seventeen, accused of converting to Islam and reverting to Judaism, an act considered apostasy under Islamic law. Despite numerous efforts in pressuring her to convert to Islam and thus save her life, she refused to renounce her faith, leading to her public execution by beheading in Fez in 1834. 

As mentioned, Suleika’s resistance is multidisciplinary: exemplifying both individual and collective Jewish resistance, as well as cultural, political and feminist forms of resistance. Moreover, her personal sacrifice gained further significance from its global impact and legacy, as well as its lasting resonance in the contemporary Jewish world. Suleika’s actions represented not only her personal devotion to her faith, but also embodied collective Jewish resistance against religious persecution through the choice of martyrdom over conversion. This instance of “Kiddush Hashem” through martyrdom, especially enacted by such a young woman, is a particularly powerful symbol of resilience in the face of oppression. For this reason, her story became significant for Moroccan Jewish communities, serving as inspiration for strength during periods of religious persecution. 

Suleika is also regarded as a figure of early feminist resistance for numerous reasons. The autonomy that she demonstrated over both her body and her beliefs is clearly outstanding for a period in which women enjoyed limited personal freedoms; the fact that she demonstrated this while so young illustrates great courage in the face of the male-dominated social structures that oppressed her. As such, she defied structures of patriarchal and religious authority that attempted to mold and sway her choices and path.  Personal and religious convictions over her identity, remaining unsubmissive to governmental and religious authority, and maintaining control over her own integrity, illustrates the point at which religious and feminist resistance and resilience merge. 

Suleika’s courageous resistance is evident in her actions and unique story; however, there are more elusive forms of resistance at play that have to do with her memory and lasting legacy. Her martyrdom created a lasting impact on the concept and perception of Jewish resistance—her story became a form of cultural resistance, inspiring numerous artistic works preserving Jewish heritage. One such work was the famous Execution of a Moroccan Jewess (1861) by French artist Alfred Dehodencq. The work of art is dominated by male figures, split across the canvas into the categories of pained Jewish figures on the right and Muslim Moroccans on the left. Female presence in the painting is limited to Suleika herself, central and visually separating the two factions of men, and a few women visible on a roof in the top right hand corner of the frame, away from the main action, and implicitly, hidden from public and influential spheres. This illustrates the extraordinary nature of Suleika’s courage, cementing her as a figure of early-feminist resistance, kneeling, her head and face lifted, amidst a crowd of men. 

Moreover, the foregrounded figure of a Rabbi dressed in black, his hands pressed together in prayer emphasises the essence of Jewish resilience and belief maintained as the core of Suleika’s actions. Enshrined in this painting is an image of political resistance, challenging systemic religious persecution in Morocco, also illustrating both feminist resistance and cultural integrity. 

This work, amongst others, is but one example of the lasting cultural elements preserving Suleika’s legacy. Beyond the artistic realm, Suleika’s grave in Fez has become a pilgrimage site for both Jews and Muslims alike, standing as an example and a reminder of unwavering faith, and maintained as an important element of Moroccan Jewish history. Although historically significant, the story of Suleika’s execution serves as a powerful reminder in understanding resilience and sacrifice within religious persecution. It remains deeply relevant today, addressing contemporary challenges of global antisemitism and inspiring the preservation of Jewish identity in the face of oppression.  Her story sets an example of Jewish female strength and steadfastness that has inspired and will continue to inspire discussions about the role of women in religious life and society. 

The young Suleika’s story thus serves as a reminder of past Jewish resilience and resistance, and presents itself as a reference point to both current and future generations in their responses to contemporary challenges, whether religious, political, feminist, or cultural. Suleika’s story is somewhat of a fable – a tragically beautiful one. Her unique story of Jewish martyrdom is not as widespread as it ought to be, pertaining specifically to the Sephardic Jewish community, and remembered by few beyond this bracket. Suleika’s story is an essential lesson within Sephardic Jewish consciousness, highlighting the strength of Sephardic women in the face of antisemitism throughout the ages, and shedding light on the fight led by Moroccan Sephardic Jews for their faith and their freedoms.

Einav Grushka is a Master’s student at Tel Aviv University. She previously served as the Deputy Editor-in-Chief of The Cambridge Language Collective and an editor for the Panoramic Magazine at the University of Cambridge. As the grandchild of Moroccan grandparents, Einav’s contribution to Yad Mizrah explores the history of her own ancestors.